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Ouyi Zhixu (p=Ǒuyì Zhìxù 1599–1655) was a Chinese Buddhism bhikku and scholar in 17th century China. He is considered the Ninth Patriarch of the Chinese Pure Land tradition, the Thirty-First Patriarch of the Tiantai tradition as well as a Chan Buddhism master, . He was also one of the Four Eminent Monks of the Wanli Era, after Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615), Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623), and Zibo Zhenke (1543–1604).William Chu. Syncretism reconsidered: The Four Eminent Monks and their syncretistic styles. Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies Volume 29 Number 1 2006 (2008).
Zhixu is well known for his non-sectarian and syncretic writings, which draw on various traditions like Tiantai, Pure Land, Yogacara, and Chan Buddhism, and also engage with Confucianism, Taoism and Jesuits sources.
At the age of 24, he became a monk at Yunqi temple under Master Khan Xueling, a disciple of Hanshan Deqing. During this 20s he studied Yogachara, practiced Chan based on the Shurangama Sutra, and he also experienced a great awakening during Chan meditation.
After his mother died when he was 28, he experienced a spiritual crisis and turned to the Pure Land practice of nianfo (reciting the Buddha's name). When he was 31, he Cleromancy to determine whether he should write a commentary on the Sutra of Brahma's Net based on Tiantai, Yogachara, Huayan or “a school of his own” ( zili). He drew the lot for Tiantai. According to Foulks, his use of lots (rather than lineage ties or doctrinal reasons) for writing from a specific Buddhist tradition suggests that he saw these schools of thought as "not only compatible but also interchangeable."
In his 30s he studied the Tiantai school extensively, writing many commentaries and essays on Buddhist sutras. He became deeply interested in mantrayana practice in his 30s, particularly the mantra of Kṣitigarbha. Ouyi also became a public teacher during this time, writing and lecturing extensively.
When he was 37 Ouyi experienced various bouts of illness which continued throughout the rest of his life. Over time, these experiences led him to shift his focus to Pure Land Buddhist practice. At the age of 56, he underwent serious illness, after which he devoted himself almost entirely to Pure land practice. In his Preface to the Pure Land Repentance, Zhixu explains how in his later years he turned to Pure Land practice:
When I first aspired to the Mahayana, I diligently practiced for several years. Although I did not dare to be arrogant and claim to have arrived home, I felt that I had gained some strength in my practice. I then thought that I could not be reborn in the Pure Land. However, when I was seriously ill and close to death, I found that none of the methods I had practiced were of any use. I then single-mindedly aspired to return to the Pure Land. However, I did not abandon my original practice, hoping to combine Chan and Pure Land practice. After meeting Boshan, I fully understood the Chan sickness of the present age. I then resolutely abandoned Chan practice and cultivated Pure Land practice. Although I was criticized for being like a person who stops eating because of choking, I did not care.. Translated from the Chinese:Ouyi died in 1656, at fifty-seven.
Ouyi Zhixu was very influential on Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. Important Pure Land Buddhist figures like Shi Yinguang and Chin Kung relied on his Commentary to the Amitabha Sutra, seeing it as the definitive commentary to this sutra. In the writings of Gukun 古崑 (fl. 1855-d. 1892), Ouyi was raised to the status of a patriarch of Pure Land Buddhism, and this status was also promoted by Yinguang.
Monastics of the Tiantai lineage such as Huiyue also regard him as the Thirty-First Patriarch of the lineage, with his master Youxi Chuandeng, who was a great Tiantai revivalist, being the Thirtieth.
Ouyi Zhixu's work was influential on many later Chinese Buddhists including modern reformists like Taixu (1889–1947), Yin Shun, and Hongyi (1880–1942).Master Sheng-yen (2002). Hoofprint of the Ox: Principles of the Chan Buddhist Path as Taught by a Modern Chinese Master, p. 11. Oxford University Press. The modern Chinese Buddhist teacher Sheng-yen (1930–2009) wrote his doctoral dissertation on Ouyi, and considered Ouyi to be one of the greatest modern Buddhist figures (alongside Taixu, Ouyang Jingwu, and Yin Shun).
His prolific writings and popularity with scholars made Ouyi one of the “four great eminent monks of the late Ming period" 明末四大高僧”.
Ouyi's works became widespread in Japanese Buddhism during the Edo period, especially after the arrival of the Ming Jiaxing Canon.Lin, Zhen-guo (林鎮國), and Jian Jin-ting (簡勁廷), eds. Japanese Buddhist Thought during the Edo Period: A Glimpse from the Other Side《側寫江戶佛教思想》. Chinese-Transmission Buddhism Series, no. 8. Institute of Chinese Buddhist Studies. (中華佛學研究所「漢傳佛教論叢」第 8 冊。) 2024.03. Taipei. Ouyi had over a hundred commentaries written on his works by Japanese Buddhist monks during the Edo Period.
Furthermore, he saw the various elements of Chinese Mahayana as being harmonious and inseparable:
Meditation, the Teachings, and the Vinaya—these three are strung together continuously. They are not just spring orchids and fall chrysanthemums. Meditation is the Buddha’s mind, the Teachings are the Buddha’s words, and the Vinaya is the Buddha’s practice. How can this world have the mind but not the words or the practices?Numerous scholars see Ouyi as being affiliated with the Tiantai school. This is because his works show a deep influence from Tiantai ideas and doctrinal schemas, including the three truths, three contemplations, four teachings and so on. However, other scholars refuse to pin him down to a single tradition, pointing to other influences in Ouyi's writings, including Vinaya, Chan and Pure Land ideas.
Scholars like Beverley Foulks have argued that Ouyi ultimately did not consider himself to be a promoter of a single tradition in a sectarian sense, but instead should be seen as someone who saw his project as one “harmonizing the traditions” (zhuzong ronghe) and transcending specific sectarian distinctions. Throughout his life, he studied and practiced multiple Chinese lineages, including Chan, Vinaya, Tiantai and Pure Land.
The metaphysical foundation of Zhixu's Buddhist philosophy is the theory of "principle and nature" (理体), which is often expressed through varying terms such as "mind and nature" (心性), or "mind and body" (心体). These terms are used interchangeably to describe the fundamental principle that underlies all phenomena. This is the buddha-nature, the "body" of all dharmas, which is neither "empty" nor "not empty". It is beyond all descriptions and negations, and yet it is the source of all phenomena.Chen Yingshan . "The Characteristics and Central Position of Ouyi Zhixu's Thought." . Journal of Chinese Literary and Philosophical Studies, Issue 8 (March 1996), pp. 227-256. The basic source of this metaphysical theory is found in key Mahayana sources such as the Awakening of Faith, Śūraṅgama Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra, both of which were commented upon by Ouyi.
Although the Buddha-Mind encompasses all that exists, each of us possesses Buddha-nature, and our personal minds are infused with the Buddha-Mind, even if we fail to recognize it. Ignorance, delusion, and karmic obscurations only veil our awareness of this true nature. When we attempt to grasp or approach the One Mind using our limited, individual minds, it is akin to trying to scoop up the ocean with a teacup. This is why the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas guide us toward awakening using special skillful means meant for our dualistic minds. Every authentic Buddhist teaching is a skillful means tailored to specific circumstances, aiming to lead beings to the realization of the One Mind. Though these teachings differ in form and application, they share a singular intent.
According to Ouyi, the best Upaya in our times for attaining the true Buddha Mind is to practice nianfo (buddha recollection):
Among all expedients , if we seek the most direct and the most complete, none is as good as seeking birth in the Pure Land through Buddha-remembrance .
This is because "the method of reciting the Buddha-name, applies to people of high, medium, and limited capacities. It encompasses both the level of phenomena, and the level of inner truth (noumenon), omitting nothing. It embraces both Zen Buddhism and Scriptural Buddhism, and leaves nothing out." Ouyi also thinks this is the superior method because it is the most inclusive and accessible, "embracing people of all mentalities and the one that is easiest to practice."
Ouyi taught a threefold schema of nianfo (buddha recollection):Sheng Yen. "Master Ou Yi's Pure Land Thought" . Modern Buddhist Academic Series , no. 65 (October 1980): 331–342. Taipei: Mahayana Culture, 1980.
Furthermore, Ouyi also writes that "the name of Amitabha is the inherently enlightened true nature of sentient beings, and reciting the name of Amitabha reveals this enlightenment." For Ouyi, the other-power of Amitabha Buddha (which is also inherent in our own mind) infuses his name with the force to lead beings to the pure land. Due to this, when someone recites the name (even those with low spiritual faculties), they merge with the Buddha, even without making an effort to meditate ("without bothering with visualization or meditation"). Thus, Ouyi writes:
We must realize that there is no name of Amitabha apart from the mind of infinite light and infinite life that is before us now at this moment, and there is no way for us to penetrate the mind of infinite light and infinite life that is before us now at this moment apart from the name of Amitabha. I hope you will ponder this deeply!
For Ouyi, reciting the Buddha's name or Buddha-remembrance (nianfo) must be coupled with faith and Bodhisattva vow (to attain birth in Sukhavati) for the optimum practice. Thus, Ouyi writes: “Without faith, we are not sufficiently equipped to take vows. Without vows, we are not sufficiently equipped to guide our practice. Without the wondrous practice of reciting the Buddha-name, we are not sufficiently equipped to fulfill our vows and to bring our faith to fruition."
Ouyi writes that it is important to practice nianfo with a focused and undisturbed mind, as this will guarantee rebirth in the pure land. However, he also held that even if our mind is scattered, reciting the name still plants wholesome seeds in the mind, due to the Buddha's mysterious power and compassion towards all:
The compassion of the Buddhas is inconceivable, and the merits of their names are also inconceivable. Therefore, once you hear a Buddha-name, no matter whether you are mindful or not, or whether you believe in it or not, it always becomes the seed of an affinity with the truth. Moreover, when the Buddhas bring salvation to sentient beings, they do not sort out friends and enemies: they go on working tirelessly for universal salvation. If you hear the Buddha-name, Buddha is bound to protect you. How can there he any doubts about this?His moderate position is also evident in his understanding of how meditation (Zazen), doctrine (jiao) and Buddhist ethics are all important and complementary elements of Buddhist practice.
Master Ouyi also explains how the ultimate principle (li, dharmakaya) is unified with conventional phenomena (shi) and thus, how the view of the pure land as the absolute reality is in perfect harmony with the view of the pure land as another realm one is reborn into after death: CBETA. No. 1762 佛說阿彌陀經要解 p. 4.
Believing in phenomena (事 shì) means having deep faith that this present single thought-moment appearing before one is inexhaustible, and therefore all the worlds of the ten directions manifested from the mind are also inexhaustible. The Land of Ultimate Bliss really does exist ten billion Buddha-lands away, a place of utmost purity and splendor. This is not like some parable from the Zhuangzi. This is called belief in phenomena. Believing in principle (理 lǐ) means having deep faith that although the Land of Ultimate Bliss is ten billion Buddha-lands away, it does not really exist outside oneself out this single thought-moment of mind present before you, for the nature of this very single thought moment is truly all-encompassing (無外, “without an outside”).Translated from:信事者，深信只今現前一念不可盡故，所以依心所現一切十方世界亦不可盡，實有極樂國土在十萬億土之外，最極清淨莊嚴不同莊生寓言，是名信事。
信理者，深信極樂國土雖在十萬億土之遠，而實不出我只今現前介爾一念心外，以吾現前一念心性實無外故。
Ouyi was also deeply interested in Buddhist precepts and the rituals for conferring precepts. His works discuss the Tiantai concept of “precept-essence” (jie ti, 戒體) and how to maintain this essence pure. For Ouyi, maintaining ethical precepts remained a necessary aspect of the path, even if one relies on the Buddha's response power.Jones, Charles B. Foundations of Ethics and Practice in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism. Journal of Buddhist Ethics v.10 (2003).
Ouyi was also devoted to Dizang and his Dharani Dizang (Kṣitigarbha) was a bodhisattva known for saving people from hell and other bad rebirths and for having the power to transform bad karma. Zhixu's interest in Chinese Esoteric Buddhism also extended to the Śūraṅgama Mantra, which he greatly respected. In his Zong Lun, Ouyi promotes the extensive recitation of this mantra, which he held would lead to samadhi and insight. Along with these mantras, he also promoted the Amitābha Pure Land Mantra.
Ouyi also had a deep knowledge of Confucianism and in some of his writings he sought to integrate Buddhism and Confucianism, which he saw as deeply compatible and complementary. Ouyi held that "the teachings of the Buddha and the sages are doing nothing else but urging us to exert our minds to the utmost." For Ouyi, the profound meaning and ultimate source of Buddhism and Confucianism were the same true original mind.
He also saw Buddhism and Confucianism as approaching the same truth in different ways, writing:
that the Great Way lies in the human mind is the only principle that has existence throughout the ages and is not privately owned by the Buddha and the sages. The unification of difference and convergence in sameness, is beyond the reach of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism. In terms of reality, the Way is neither of this world, nor beyond this world. Thus, entering truth through the Way is called otherworldliness; entering the secular through the Way is called worldliness. Both the true and the secular are externalities, and externalities do not deviate from the way...Confucianism and Daoism both use true doctrines to protect the secular, so that the secular will not go against the truth; Buddhism approaches the secular to understand the truth, wherein the truth does not mix with the secular.Ouyi wrote a Chan interpretation of the I Ching and he said that this was "nothing else but an introduction of Chan into Confucianism, in order to entice Confucians to understand Chan". Ouyi went as far as to write that "Confucianism, Daoism, Chan, Vinaya, Doctrinal Buddhism were nothing but yellow leaves and empty fists", meaning that they were all just skillful means (upaya) that could be used to attain the One Principle ( yili).Charles S. Prebish, On-cho Ng (2022). The Theory and Practice of Zen Buddhism: A Festschrift in Honor of Steven Heine, p. 131. Springer Nature.
In his autobiography, Ouyi describes himself as "a follower of the eight negations". This term can have different connotations, including eight negations found in Madhyamaka sources ("neither arising nor ceasing, neither eternal nor impermanent, neither unitary nor different, neither coming nor going"). However, Ouyi also writes that this term can mean that he does not follow or study "Confucianism, Chan, Vinaya, and the Teachings." Foulks writes that this means Ouyi was "refusing to be categorized as Confucian or Buddhist (in any particular tradition), Ouyi instead espouses the most general religious identification of “follower” or “a person on the path” ( daoren)". According to Foulks, in his autobiography, Ouyi defends a "broad, nonsectarian religiosity" instead of focusing on any specific Buddhist tradition or seeing himself as part of any "school" (zong).
According to Foulks, Zhixu was also concerned with the ethical implications of Christianity, since he saw benevolence (ren 仁) as deriving from humans and their self-cultivation, but "if humans receive their nature from an external source, they can absolve themselves of ethical responsibility; moreover, since Jesuits disavow reincarnation, they further curtail the ability of humans to morally better themselves and render them entirely dependent on God or Jesus to absolve them of their wrongdoings."
Some of his important works include:
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